Last time we spoke about Stalin’s Purges. In the aftermath of World War I, Germany faced chaos and despair, giving rise to Adolf Hitler, who capitalized on public disillusionment. The Weimar Republic struggled amid economic turmoil, while Hitler's National Socialist Party gained traction, ultimately leading to his appointment as Chancellor in 1933. He enacted measures that dismantled democracy and aggressively expanded Germany's territory, laying the groundwork for future conflict. Simultaneously, Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union embarked on rapid industrialization through ambitious Five-Year Plans, aiming to transform agriculture and boost heavy industry. However, this progress was overshadowed by brutal purges designed to eliminate dissent. As Stalin solidified his power, the repression created a climate of fear within society.The actions of both regimes intensified tensions throughout Europe, setting the stage for impending conflict. This interplay of political upheaval and authoritarian control in Germany and the USSR would play a crucial role in the escalation to World War II.

This episode is Prelude #6 Soviet Conflicts of the 1930s

Well hello there, welcome to the Easter Front week by week podcast, I am your dutiful host Craig Watson. But, before we start I want to also remind you this podcast is only made possible through the efforts of Kings and Generals over at Youtube. Perhaps you want to learn more about world war two? Kings and Generals have an assortment of episodes on world war two and much more so go give them a look over on Youtube. So please subscribe to Kings and Generals over at Youtube and to continue helping us produce this content please check out www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. If you are still hungry for some more history related content, over on my channel, the Pacific War Channel you can find a few videos all the way from the Opium Wars of the 1800’s until the end of the Pacific War in 1945.

Today we are going to be exploring major conflicts the Soviet Union ran into with her neighbors. Ironically the vast majority of this episode is actually wars that I covered in the Fall and Rise of China Podcast such as the Sino-Soviet War, Xinjiang Wars, Mukden Incident and border skirmishes in Manchuria. If you want a much more in depth look at any of those check them out.

The Soviets were engaged in the Far East from the early days of the civil war, continuing a long-standing tradition of East-West interactions that have persisted through Eastern Europe for over a thousand years. In 1920, Mongolia was occupied by White forces, remaining under their control until 1924, when Soviet troops successfully defeated them. This victory was only achieved with the support of local guerrillas led by Damdin Sükhbaatar, who became one of the founding figures of the Mongolian People’s Republic. This event decisively aligned Mongolia with Moscow, which would have significant implications for future conflicts with China and Japan.

The Empires of Japan and Russia had come into conflict, competing for influence over Manchuria. After coming out of isolation in the latter part of the 19th century, Japan developed a strong interest in Manchuria. This region was rich in natural resources such as coal and iron, as well as fertile land, all of which Japan lacked. It also offered additional space for Japan's rapidly growing population. Moreover, Japan was concerned that Russian expansion into Manchuria would threaten its interests in Korea and, by extension, Japan itself. As Yamagata Aritomo famously said, “Korea is a dagger aimed at the heart of Japan.”

Then in 1899 the Boxer Rebellion broke out seeing Japan and Russia join a 8 nation alliance to combat the Qing Dynasty in league with the Boxers. While they were technically allies, Japan was very wary of Russia at this time. That is because Russia had invaded Manchuria for the war effort and after the Boxer Rebellion was quelled, well the Russians did not go home. Thus in 1904 this led to the Russo-Japanese War. In February 1904, Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur, initiating the war. The conflict quickly escalated, with Japan demonstrating its naval superiority and effective military strategies. Major battles, such as the Siege of Port Arthur and the Battle of Tsushima, showcased Japan's modernized forces and naval strength, leading to significant Russian losses. Despite being a major European power, Russia faced logistical challenges and underestimation of Japanese capabilities. Japan's victories not only shocked the world but also shifted the balance of power in East Asia. Internationally, the conflict drew attention, leading to US President Theodore Roosevelt's intervention in negotiations. The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth in September 1905, brokered by Roosevelt. Japan gained recognition as a formidable military power, acquiring territories such as Korea and parts of Manchuria, which significantly altered the political landscape of Asia. However it was truly a pyrrhic victory for Japan. Both nations lost insane numbers of men and funds. For Russia it led to the revolution that collapsed her empire. For Japan, they felt Roosevelt had cheated them from the rewards of their victory and led them to war against the US by 1941.

In the 1920s, Manchuria was a crucial area for both the Chinese Nationalist government and the Soviet Union, following the collapse of the Qing Dynasty and the subsequent power struggles among warlords. Zhang Zuolin, a prominent warlord, had considerable control over the region and was seen as a threat to Soviet interests, especially after he signed an agreement with Japan. The Soviet Union aimed to safeguard its borders and influence in the region, particularly in the face of potential Japanese aggression. The Soviet Union, feeling threatened by Zhang's increasing ties with Japan, sought to undermine his authority. Conflict emerged over the management of the CER, a vital railway for both Soviet and Chinese interests. The Soviet Union had previously promised to return control of the CER to China, as per the 1924 agreement. However, the implementation of this promise was complicated by competing interests. The Soviets aimed to maintain a certain level of influence over the railway, fearing the escalation of Chinese control would weaken their grip on Manchuria.

Then Zhang Zuolin was assassinated on June 4th of 1928 by Kwantung Army operatives. Actually it’s a murky story, but there is a possibility the KGB was also involved. Regardless the Japanese sought his death to install a more pro-Japanese Chinese general they had been grooming called Yang Yutin. However, the assassination plot was leaked to Zhang Xueliang, the son of Zhang Zuolin. The Young Marshal became the new leader and firmly joined forces with Chiang Kai-Shek’s new Nationalist Government. Basically the entire thing totally backfired on the Japanese. One of the first things Zhang Xueliang took notice of as a leader was the precarious situation with the CER. In 1929, the Northeastern Army, under Zhang Xueliang, attempted to reassert Chinese control over the CER, leading to heightened tensions with the Soviets, who were keen on retaining joint control. The situation escalated when Chinese authorities seized Soviet officials associated with the railway, prompting a strong Soviet military response.

In response to these provocations, the Soviet Union mobilized a large military force, with approximately 156,000 troops, marking it as one of the largest deployments since the Russian Civil War. The conflict officially began on August 17, 1929, with the Soviet attack on Chalainor. Although the Soviets faced initial setbacks, they quickly regrouped and developed a strategy to encircle and neutralize Chinese resistance. The Soviets implemented a series of carefully coordinated military operations, including naval strategies that involved advancing their fleets up important rivers, capturing strategic locations like Lahasusu, and executing a two-phase attack to undermine Chinese ground forces. Their efforts culminated in several victories, showcasing the reformed Red Army's capabilities.

By late November 1929, after sustained military pressure and strategic maneuvers, the Chinese forces were substantially weakened and demoralized. On December 13, a treaty known as the Khabarovsk Protocol was signed, which reaffirmed Soviet control over the CER but also indicated a return to the status quo based on the earlier treaties. The Soviet Union effectively regained control of the railway after having demonstrated military prowess and diplomatic maneuvering. The conflict revealed the vulnerabilities within the Chinese military command and highlighted the Soviets' willingness to use both diplomacy and military force. The Soviet victory bolstered communist propaganda and demonstrated the USSR's contemporary military capabilities, influencing perceptions in the West regarding Soviet power and strategy.

Taking a side step from Manchuria for a moment, the Soviets also shared a border with China at Xinjiang. In the early 1930s, Xinjiang was officially recognized as a province of China but had largely operated autonomously for many years. In 1930, Sheng Shicai served as the military governor under the Kuomintang government in Xinjiang. However, he was not the sole authority and faced competition from other power players. Following a clash with these rivals, he sought assistance from the Soviet Government, which provided substantial military supplies and financial support. In exchange, Sheng relinquished direct control over the province's economic and military affairs to Soviet administrators, effectively establishing Xinjiang as a client state of the USSR, even though it remained a province of the Chinese Nationalist government. The Soviets periodically intervened to reinforce their influence whenever they perceived it was diminishing. In 1934, they dispatched 7,000 troops across the border to assist Sheng in repelling an attempt by Nationalist warlords to oust him. This effort only partially succeeded, leading to a division of Xinjiang, with Sheng retaining authority over a segment of the province. This fragile arrangement persisted until 1937. In April of that year, Uighurs in the southern region of Sheng's control revolted, receiving unofficial support from the "New 36th Division," a semi-autonomous group within the Kuomintang. This division had been engaged in conflict against the Soviets and their puppet governor since Sheng's rise to power in 1933. The Kuomintang never officially acknowledged the division's actions to avoid straining relations with the USSR, especially since they relied heavily on Soviet military assistance following the onset of the Second Sino-Japanese War in July. Lacking formal support, both the rebels and the New 36th Division could only resist for a few months, and by October, they had been defeated. Sheng Shicai regained complete control of Xinjiang, where he would remain until 1944, when his duplicity with both the Soviets and the Kuomintang led to his dismissal from office. That was a gross oversimplification of a region with multiple groups fighting for dominance that I can’t possibly get into in this podcast. However on the Fall and Rise of China Podcast there is a multi part series on it. Its honestly batshit insane, that one.

Now back over in Manchuria the Japanese had been planning a seizure of Manchuria for quite some time. The invasion of Manchuria was triggered by the Mukden Incident on September 18, 1931. Japanese military personnel staged a bombing near Mukden, claiming Chinese forces were responsible. This incident provided a pretext for the Kwantung Army, a faction of the Japanese military stationed in Manchuria, to launch a full-scale invasion. Ignoring orders from the civilian government in Tokyo to withdraw, the army moved quickly and occupied large portions of Manchuria. The invasion met minimal resistance from Chinese military forces, who were preoccupied with internal strife and did not effectively counter the Japanese advance. By February 1932, the Japanese had captured key cities such as Harbin and Dalian. To legitimize its control, Japan established a puppet state called Manchukuo in March 1932, placing the last Qing emperor, Puyi, on the throne as a figurehead. This puppet regime was intended to portray Japan's occupation as a civilizing mission, emphasizing economic development and stability, but was largely viewed as an illegitimate occupation by the international community. The international response to the invasion was limited. The League of Nations condemned Japan's actions, leading to Japan's withdrawal from the organization in 1933. China appealed for assistance but received little meaningful support from Western powers, who were preoccupied with their own economic problems during the Great Depression. Meanwhile, Japan continued to fortify its military presence in Manchuria and exploited its resources, establishing factories and railroads to benefit its war machine.

Moscow viewed this as a blatant power grab by the Japanese. In one swift action, the Soviets found themselves outmaneuvered. Just months earlier, they had the opportunity to seize Manchuria but opted for a strategy of soft power instead. As a result, their control over the crucial Chinese Eastern Railway became insignificant. The Japanese now held dominion over the entire region. Stalin recognized that the Red Army was ill-prepared to respond to this development. The new circumstances in Manchuria signified that merely rearming was insufficient; defensive structures were erected along the new border, and strategies were devised to defend against potential Japanese incursions while also preparing for an invasion of Manchuria. Mongolia grew increasingly aligned with the Soviet Union, and mutual assistance agreements were publicly established. Eventually, Stalin instructed a strengthening of relations with the Nationalist Chinese government, culminating in a non-aggression pact signed in 1937. While this agreement alleviated some tensions between the USSR and China, the Japanese remained unyielding. By 1938, the frequency of border clashes between the Soviets and the Japanese began to escalate.

Despite the issues in the Far East, Stalin's Great Purge was escalating simultaneously. Thousands of officers were removed from their positions, with many being executed. Among the most notable was Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who had been a key figure in the Red Army's leadership for over a decade. These executions severely impacted the command-and-control capabilities of the Red Army. The military command in the Far East, known as the Special Red Banner Far Eastern Army and led by the now-Marshal Vasily Blyukher, was particularly affected by these purges. General Genrikh Lyushkov, the NKVD commander under Marshal Blyukher, was the main orchestrator of this purge in the east. By June, Lyushkov feared he would soon be purged himself, prompting him to defect to the Japanese Army. He brought with him a wealth of classified documents revealing the Red Army's positioning in the east, along with insights into the vulnerabilities in the command structure following the purge. Lyushkov would be held captive in Japanese territory for the rest of the war. He eventually remarried and resigned himself to living in Japan. He disappeared from the record in 1945 during the retreat at Dalian in Manchuria. It is unclear if he was executed by his Japanese captors, killed by Soviet troops, or just lost in the mayhem of the retreating forces. The Soviet government's response to this situation remains somewhat ambiguous. However, it is known that the command of border units was reorganized and new troops were sent to the region. In the days following Lyushkov's defection, Marshal Blyukher was summoned to Moscow, presumably to receive an official reprimand from Stalin. Although he was not immediately arrested, the NKVD increased their scrutiny of him.

On July 6, 1938, the Japanese Kwantung Army intercepted a message from the Soviet commander in the Posyet region to Soviet headquarters in Khabarovsk. The message proposed that Soviet soldiers secure unoccupied high ground west of Lake Khasan, particularly the contested Changkufeng Heights, to gain a strategic advantage overlooking the Korean port of Rajin and key railways connecting Korea to Manchuria. In the following two weeks, small groups of Soviet border troops moved into the area to fortify the mountain with emplacements, observation trenches, and communication facilities. This triggered Japanese forces to begin moving into the area around Lake Khasan in July 1938, ostensibly to secure their position after a border incident and to claim territory they believed rightfully belonged to them. The Soviet command responded swiftly, deploying troops to the region to reinforce border defenses.

The Soviet forces were composed largely of the 39th Special Corps, which included infantry and mechanized units, as well as cavalry. The commander of the Soviet forces, Vasily Blyukher, was tasked with defending the region against the Japanese incursions. On the other hand, the Japanese forces, primarily consisting of troops from the Kwantung Army, were well-trained and motivated, seeking to assert their dominance in the region. Initially, the fighting involved skirmishes and artillery exchanges as both sides engaged in probing attacks. The Japanese used their superior infantry tactics and artillery to capture strategic positions. However, the Soviet forces, well entrenched and supported by artillery and tank units, mounted a considerable defense.

The major engagement occurred between August 1 and August 3, 1938, when the Japanese launched a large-scale offensive aimed at breaking through Soviet lines. The battles saw intense hand-to-hand combat, and the Soviet troops held their ground despite being outnumbered in certain sectors. Soviet counterattacks were initiated, and heavy fighting ensued around strategic points such as the heights overlooking Lake Khasan. As the battle dragged on, the Soviet side received reinforcements, allowing them to consolidate their defense. The fighting resulted in heavy casualties for both sides, with estimates of Soviet losses ranging from 500 to 1,000 troops, while Japanese casualties were reported to be higher, at around 2,000. By August 11, after several weeks of fighting, the situation began to stabilize. The Soviet command made the decision to continue holding their positions rather than pushing for further territorial gains. The battle ended with the two sides agreeing to a ceasefire. The front lines were re-established at Lake Khasan, and the status quo was maintained, but the tensions remained unresolved.

Back in 1936 the Soviet Union had entered into a Mutual Assistance Pact with Mongolia, allowing Soviet troops to be stationed in Mongolia to protect against potential Japanese aggression. In 1939, Japan had accumulated significant military forces in Manchukuo, the most notable of which was the Kwantung Army, considered one of Japan's most elite military units. On May 11, 1939, a small Mongolian cavalry unit ventured into a disputed area seeking grazing land. The Japanese responded quickly and forcefully, engaging in a series of skirmishes.The conflict began with only a few dozen cavalrymen from each side but rapidly escalated to involve several hundred soldiers, tanks, and artillery. In June, General Georgy Zhukov was appointed to lead the 57th Rifle Corps, arriving with considerable resources and additional troops. In response, the Kwantung Army fortified their positions. This led to thousands of soldiers being engaged on both sides. General Zhukov was acutely aware that his career and likely his life were at stake.

General Georgy Zhukov began to mobilize his forces, bringing in armored divisions and increasing troop numbers in the area significantly. On May 14, Lt. Colonel Yaozo Azuma led several regiments to drive the Mongols away but faced support from the Red Army. Azuma's forces suffered 63% casualties, a devastating blow. By June, the battle had significantly intensified, with Japan deploying 30,000 troops to the region. The Soviets sent Zhukov along with motorized and armored units to counter them. Lacking effective armored divisions, the Imperial Japanese Army used air forces to target the nearby Soviet airbase at Tamsakbulak. In July, the IJA confronted the Red Army with nearly 100 tanks and tankettes, while Zhukov unleashed a force of 450 tanks and armored vehicles. The Japanese had superior infantry support, but the Soviet armor managed to encircle and defeat them. The two armies skirmished for weeks, with the Japanese believing the Soviets would face logistical challenges. However, Zhukov organized a fleet of 2,600 trucks to supply his forces, an impressive feat. Both sides sustained heavy casualties, and in August, global politics began to shift, indicating an impending war in Europe. Zhukov was ordered to take decisive action, as the Soviets could not engage in a two-front war. Consequently, Zhukov mobilized a fleet of 4,000 trucks to transport supplies from Chita to the front alongside an armada of tanks and mechanized brigades. The Soviets deployed three rifle divisions, two tank divisions, and two tank brigades, nearly 500 tanks in total, along with two motorized infantry divisions and 550 fighters and bombers.

The stalemate was broken when Zhukov unleashed his forces, sending approximately 50,000 Soviets and Mongols to assault the east bank of Khalkhin Gol. The Japanese were immediately pinned down as the Soviets executed a double envelopment maneuver. Subsequent Japanese counterattacks failed miserably, and their attempts to break out of encirclement were unsuccessful. The surrounded Japanese troops resisted surrender as the Soviets bombarded them with artillery and aerial strikes. By the end of August, the Japanese forces on the Mongolian side of the border had been annihilated. A ceasefire was signed between the USSR and Japan on September 15.

The battle of Khalkhin Gol was catastrophic for both sides. The Japanese reported 8,440 dead, 8,766 wounded, and losses of 162 aircraft and 42 tanks, with an estimated 500-600 Japanese troops taken prisoner, who were classified as killed in action due to IJA doctrine. Some sources suggest that actual Japanese casualties could have reached as high as 30,000. The Soviets reported 9,703 deaths, 15,251 wounded, and the destruction of 253 tanks, 250 aircraft, 96 artillery pieces, and 133 armored cars. Of the tank losses, it is estimated that 75-80% were destroyed by anti-tank guns, 15-20% by field artillery, 5-10% by incendiary bombs thrown by infantry, 3% by mines, and another 3% through aircraft bombardment. The implications of this battle were pivotal. The defeat led to major reforms in the Japanese military, shifting focus toward enhancing mechanized and armored capabilities due to the lessons learned from the underperformance of their troops against the Soviets. On the Soviet side, this conflict reinforced the rising prominence of General Zhukov, who would later become a key figure during World War II.

Now we have spent all this time talking about conflict in the east, but there would also be one in the west. Britain and France had been trying to negotiate a military alliance with the Soviet Union to protect Poland before the Nazi dictator launched his attack on the nation. By August 1939, these discussions were about to fall apart. As General Zhukov oversaw the final phases of the Battle of Khalkhin-Gol, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop was secretly meeting with Stalin to persuade the Soviet Union to reach an agreement with Germany. This agreement was finalized on August 23, resulting in the division of Poland between Stalin and Hitler, while the Baltic nations, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and Finland, fell under the Soviet sphere of influence, giving Stalin unfettered control over these countries.

Following the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on August 23, 1939, both countries agreed to not interfere in each other's spheres of influence and to divide Eastern Europe between them. Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. The German Wehrmacht employed the Blitzkrieg strategy, which emphasized rapid attacks combining air power, armor, and infantry forces to overwhelm opponents quickly. The attack began early in the morning with bombing raids on Warsaw and other key cities, crippling Polish military communications and infrastructure. In the early hours, German forces crossed the Polish borders from multiple directions. They invaded from the west, north, and south, with considerable speed and efficiency. By using fast-moving armored units and coordinating them with air support, they achieved significant ground gains, quickly encircling and isolating Polish resistance. Poland, despite having a military force that was brave and determined, was significantly outmatched. The Polish strategy relied on static defenses and a hope for international assistance from France and Britain. However, while they declared war on Germany on September 3, support was slow to materialize, and logistical issues plagued the Polish forces. The Polish Army was not prepared for the speed of the German onslaught or the tactics employed, which led to disarray and confusion among its ranks.

On September 17, 1939, as Germany was finishing its conquest of western Poland, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east. Taking advantage of Poland's weakened state, the Red Army advanced across the border with the justification of protecting the Ukrainian and Belarusian minorities in Poland. The operation was swift and strategically planned, mirroring the German tactics of encirclement. The Polish government, caught in a pincer movement, had little recourse. The Soviet invasion further complicated their ability to resist as they were forced to fight on two fronts without adequate support. The Soviet forces captured the eastern territories, and Polish troops were taken prisoner or forced to retreat to Romania and other neighboring countries.

The swift offensives resulted in the rapid collapse of Polish resistance. By October 6, 1939, major organized Polish military resistance ceased, leading to the division of Poland as outlined in the secret protocol of the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Germany gained control over western Poland, while the Soviets annexed the eastern regions, including parts of present-day Ukraine and Belarus. The occupation was brutal, characterized by significant repression. The Nazi regime implemented harsh policies involving the persecution of Polish Jews and the intelligentsia, deportations, and systematic annihilation in what would become the Holocaust. The Soviet occupation was also marked by political repression, including mass arrests, executions, and deportations of Polish citizens to Siberian gulags. The invasion of Poland in 1939 had profound long-term implications. It not only led to the displacement and suffering of millions but also firmly established the patterns of totalitarian rule in both occupied territories. The events served as a precursor to the extreme atrocities and war crimes that would unfold over the next six years. It also highlighted the failure of international alliances and the inadequacies of the League of Nations in deterring aggression.

Initially, the Soviets sought to leverage the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact to negotiate with the Baltic states. Finland was asked to relinquish rights and territory around the Gulf of Finland and some northern islands in exchange for concessions in Karelia. However, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia received no such offers. Consequently, these smaller nations were quickly pressured into complying with Soviet demands. The Finns, however, resisted and turned down the Soviet proposals. Finland and the Soviet Union had long-standing territorial disputes, particularly regarding the border areas. The Soviet Union demanded that Finland cede territory, specifically parts of Karelia and the strategic port of Hanko, in exchange for land elsewhere. Finland, valuing its sovereignty and territorial integrity, rejected these ultimatums. This diplomatic impasse heightened tensions, setting the stage for war. On November 30, 1939, the Soviet Union launched a massive offensive against Finland, citing the need to protect its borders from potential threats. The Soviet military, expecting a swift victory due to its overwhelming numerical superiority and modern equipment, initiated an invasion across the border. The Soviet Union deployed around 450,000 troops against approximately 150,000 Finnish defenders. Despite being significantly outnumbered, the Finnish forces, comprised largely of regular military personnel and reservists, were well-prepared for defense. Finnish soldiers were familiar with the challenging winter terrain, utilizing knowledge of their homeland to their advantage. They employed guerilla tactics, including mobility and the element of surprise, against the larger Soviet force. The Finnish Army was also equipped with skis and snowmobiles, enabling rapid movement across the snow-covered landscape.

One of the pivotal encounters of the war was the battle of Suomussalmi, fought between December 7, 1939, and January 8, 1940. Finnish troops, though greatly outnumbered, executed a brilliantly coordinated attack, managing to encircle and defeat a larger Soviet contingent. The victory boosted Finnish morale and showcased the effectiveness of their military strategy.The battle of Raate Road took place from January 1 to 7, 1940, and involved the remnants of the Soviet 163rd Division. Finnish forces, utilizing their knowledge of the terrain, executed a surprise ambush along the Raate Road, resulting in the encirclement and destruction of a significant part of the Soviet troops. Occurring from January to March 1940, the battle of Vuosalmi was marked by intense fighting in the Karelian Isthmus. Finnish troops employed defensive positions and fortified lines. Despite Soviet attempts to breach these defenses, Finnish forces held firm, demonstrating resilience against overwhelming odds.

The Soviet invasion faced numerous challenges, including harsh winter conditions, poor logistical planning, and lack of familiarity with the terrain. Troops poorly equipped for winter warfare suffered from frostbite and supply issues, leading to disarray within their ranks. Additionally, Soviet military tactics were outdated and overly reliant on massed infantry assaults, which were ineffective against the well-organized Finnish defenses. Despite fierce resistance, the tide of the conflict began to turn in favor of the Soviets by February 1940, as they gradually adjusted their tactics, employing more effective armored and aerial units. However, they faced significant attrition, and progress was slow. The war concluded on March 13, 1940, with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty. The treaty resulted in Finland ceding approximately 11% of its territory to the Soviet Union, including parts of Karelia and the vital city of Viipuri. However, Finland retained its independence and a large portion of its territory, marking a significant achievement against a vastly superior adversary.

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In the aftermath of World War I, chaos in Germany birthed Hitler’s rise, while Stalin's purges gripped the USSR. As Hitler expanded territory and repressed dissent, the Soviets industrialized through brutal measures. Their escalating tensions foreshadowed the cataclysm of World War II, igniting conflicts across Europe and Asia.